We’re all made of star stuff, as astronomer Carl Sagan was keen on reminding us. Supernova explosions, the catastrophic self-destruction of sure varieties of worn-out stars, are intimately tied to life on Earth as a result of they’re the birthplaces of heavy components throughout the universe. Many of the iron in our blood and the sulfur in our amino acids originated in stars that detonated billions of years in the past. However we’ve got encountered one other, fairly stunning connection between supernovas and the human world—particularly, a connection to the expertise wanted to make computer chips for the newest smartphones and different digital units.
That connection emerged a number of years in the past in a collection of conversations between myself,
Jayson Stewart, and my grandfather Rudolf Schultz. My grandfather was an avid newbie sky gazer who saved a big reflector telescope within the lobby of his residence, proper by the doorway, prepared for fast deployment. After I was in highschool, he handed me a replica of Stephen Hawking’s A Brief History of Time (Bantam Books, 1988) and guided me towards a lifelong love of physics. Extra just lately, my grandfather’s astronomical perspective additionally proved serendipitously helpful in my profession, as I defined to him throughout considered one of our commentary classes at his residence within the foothills of Tucson.
A double laser zap strikes a droplet of tin in ASML’s lithography machine. The primary zap flattens the drop right into a disk; the second vaporizes it right into a ball of sizzling, ultraviolet-emitting plasma. ASML
I used to be updating my grandfather in regards to the work I used to be doing in my lab at
ASML, a Netherlands-based firm that develops and builds gear for manufacturing semiconductor chips. On the time, a couple of decade in the past, I used to be serving to to refine a system for fabricating chips utilizing extreme ultraviolet( EUV) gentle. Though it’s crucial to creating essentially the most superior microchips right now, EUV lithography was then a difficult expertise nonetheless in improvement. To supply EUV gentle, we’d focus an intense laser pulse onto 30-micrometer-wide droplets of tin flying by a chamber full of low-density hydrogen. Vitality from the laser remodeled the droplets into balls of plasma which are 40 occasions as sizzling because the floor of the solar, inflicting the tin to emit intense ultraviolet radiation. As a by-product, the plasma balls generated shock waves that traveled by the encircling hydrogen. Sadly, the explosions additionally launched sprays of tin particles, which have been proving extraordinarily troublesome to handle.
Recalling my astronomy classes with my grandfather, I spotted that many points of this course of have intriguing similarities to what occurs throughout a supernova: a sudden explosion, an increasing cloud of plasma particles, and a shock wave that slams into a skinny hydrogen setting. (Interstellar materials consists largely of hydrogen.) To refine our EUV setup, we’d report the evolution of the shock wave from our plasma balls, a lot as astronomers examine the stays of supernovas to infer the properties of the stellar explosion that created them. We even used among the similar gear, corresponding to a filter tuned to the attribute deep-red emission of energized hydrogen atoms, known as a Hydrogen-alpha, or H-alpha, filter. Although a supernova has 1045 occasions as a lot power as our tin blasts, the identical math describes the evolution of each varieties of explosions. The shut bodily analogy between tin-plasma shocks and supernova shocks has turned out to be key to determining methods to take care of our vexing tin-debris downside.
Seen by telescopic eyes, the evening sky is dotted with the glowing stays of exploded stars. My grandfather was tickled by the connection between these historical, distant celestial objects and the trendy gear used to take advantage of superior semiconductor chips on this planet. He felt that many different newbie sky gazers like himself would like to examine this story. I advised him I’d write it up if he could be my coauthor—and he’s.
Sadly, my grandfather shouldn’t be right here to see our article accomplished. However he did reside to see these astrophysical parallels result in necessary sensible penalties: They helped my group at ASML produce a shiny, dependable EUV gentle supply, resulting in a
major advance in commercial chipmaking.
EUV and Moore’s Legislation
My journey into the world of EUV mini-supernovas began in 2012, once I was finishing a stint as a postdoctoral analysis scientist at
Los Alamos National Laboratory and in search of my first job outdoors of academia. A buddy acquired me within the potentialities of working within the semiconductor industry, the place producers are engaged in a continuing, high-stakes competitors to construct smaller, quicker circuits. I discovered that the lithography course of used to create options on laptop chips was at a disaster level, one which provided intriguing engineering challenges.
In lithography, gentle is used to imprint an intricate sample onto a ready silicon substrate. This course of is repeated many occasions in a collection of etching, doping, and deposition steps to create as much as 100 layers; the patterns in these layers find yourself defining the circuitry of a pc chip. The dimensions of the options that may be transferred onto that silicon substrate is set by the imaging system and by the wavelength of sunshine. The shorter the wavelength and extra energetic the sunshine, the smaller the options. The ultraviolet wavelengths in use on the time have been too lengthy and crude for the subsequent era of chips. Lithography expertise, and probably the almost trillion-dollar electronics trade, would stagnate until we might create a strong supply of shorter-wavelength, EUV gentle.
On the time, the out there EUV gentle sources have been too feeble by a couple of issue of 10. The duty of reaching such an enormous energy improve was so daunting that I debated with my household in regards to the knowledge of beginning a profession in EUV lithography. Loads of pundits prompt that the expertise might by no means be commercialized. Regardless of my trepidation, I used to be received over by Daniel Brown, then ASML’s vp of expertise improvement, who noticed EUV as the easiest way to attain the subsequent large bounce in chip efficiency. (Daniel, a coauthor of this text, retired from the corporate on the finish of 2024.)
Amazingly, the Taylor-von Neumann-Sedov formulation describes atomic–bomb shocks with radii of tons of of meters, supernova shocks that stretch throughout gentle years, and tin-plasma shocks simply millimeters wide.
For many years, producers had managed to squeeze increasingly more transistors onto an built-in circuit, going from about 2,000 transistors in 1971 to 200 billion in 2024. Engineers saved Moore’s Legislation—the doubling of transistor depend each couple of years—alive for greater than 5 a long time by incrementally decreasing the wavelength of sunshine and increasing the numerical aperture of the imaging system utilized in lithography.
Lithography methods within the Eighties used mercury lamps that radiated at wavelengths of 436 nanometers (violet gentle) and finally 365 nm (near-ultraviolet). To scale back the characteristic dimension of transistors additional, individuals invented high-power lasers that would produce ultraviolet beams at shorter, 248-nm and 193-nm wavelengths. Then the transfer to ever-shorter wavelengths hit a wall, as a result of virtually all identified lens supplies take in gentle with wavelengths of lower than about 150 nm.
For a short time, lithographers managed to maintain making progress utilizing a intelligent trick: They
put water between the lens and the silicon wafer to enhance the focusing energy of the imaging system. However finally, the scaling course of stagnated and engineers have been compelled to modify to shorter wavelengths. That swap, in flip, required changing lenses with mirrors, which got here with a penalty. Mirrors couldn’t obtain the identical focusing precision because the earlier lens-plus-water mixture. To make significant progress, we wanted to drastically scale back the wavelength of the sunshine to round 13.5 nm, or about one-thirtieth the wavelength of the shortest seen violet gentle that your eye can see.
To get there, we’d want one thing insanely sizzling. The wavelength of sunshine emitted by an incandescent supply is set by its temperature. The floor of the solar, which has a temperature of 6,000 °C, radiates most strongly within the seen spectrum. Attending to EUV gentle with a wavelength of 13.5 nm requires a supply with an especially excessive temperature, round 200,000 °C.
Tin droplets fall by ASML’s lithography machine. Laser beams strike the passing droplets 50,000 occasions a second, inflicting them to glow and making a steady excessive ultraviolet light supply. Tin particles is swept away by a high-speed circulation of hydrogen. ASML
At ASML, we settled on a sizzling, energetic tin plasma as the easiest way to create an EUV “lightbulb.” Due to the actual manner their electrons are organized, extremely excited tin ions radiate a lot of their gentle in a slim band proper across the trade’s desired 13.5-nm wavelength.
The massive query we confronted was methods to create such a tin plasma reliably. The lithography course of in chip manufacturing requires a particular, extremely constant EUV radiation dose to reveal the photoresist, the light-sensitive materials used to create circuit patterns on the wafer. So the sunshine supply needed to ship correct quantities of power. Equally necessary, it had to take action constantly for lengthy intervals of time, with no expensive pauses for restore or upkeep.
We designed a
Rube Goldberg–like system by which a molten droplet of tin is focused by two laser beams. The primary turns the droplet right into a pancake-shaped disk. The second laser hits the tin with a brief, energetic laser pulse that converts it right into a high-temperature plasma. A virtually hemispherical, multilayer mirror then collects EUV gentle from the plasma and tasks it into the lithographic scanner, a bus-size software that makes use of the sunshine to challenge patterns onto the silicon wafer.
The fashionable chipmaking course of begins with an excessive ultraviolet (EUV) gentle supply. The EUV gentle is directed by an elaborate collection of mirrors onto the floor of a transferring wafer, the place it creates the specified sample of imprinted circuits. ASML
Sustaining an EUV gentle supply intense sufficient for lithography requires a main laser with an influence of a number of tens of kilowatts, zapping about 50,000 droplets of tin each second. In lower than one ten-millionth of a second, every laser pulse transforms the tin from a 30-micrometer-wide droplet right into a millimeter-wide plasma explosion with tens of hundreds of occasions its unique quantity.
Mark Phillips, the director of lithography and {hardware} options at Intel, described the EUV lithography machine we have been serving to to develop as “essentially the most technically superior software of any type that’s ever been made.”
At 50,000 droplets per second, working underneath heavy use, every of our lithography machines has the potential to generate almost 1 trillion pulses per 12 months, totaling many liters of molten tin. By means of all of that, a single nanometer of tin particles coating the collector optic would degrade the EUV transmission to unacceptable ranges and put the machine out of fee. As we are saying within the trade, it wasn’t sufficient to make the ability; we needed to
survive the ability.
Hydrogen in EUV and in House
A steady flush of low-density hydrogen gas protects the mirror and surrounding vessel from the spray of vaporized tin ejecta. That particles has an preliminary velocity of tens of kilometers per second, a lot quicker than the pace of sound in hydrogen. When the supersonic tin hits the hydrogen gasoline, it subsequently produces an outward-spreading shock wave—the one that’s carefully analogous to what occurs when a supernova explosion expands into the tenuous hydrogen that fills interstellar area.
The low-density hydrogen gasoline can be on the transfer, although, flowing by the machine at tons of of kilometers per hour. The gasoline slows, cools, and flushes out the energetic tin particles because it goes. To find out how a lot hydrogen we wanted to comb the tin away and to maintain the gasoline from overheating, first we had to determine the whole power launched by the laser-produced plasmas. And determining that quantity was not a trivial activity.
My colleagues and I at ASML discovered an efficient method to measure the power of our tin explosions, not by learning the plasma straight, however by observing the response of the hydrogen gasoline. In hindsight the concept appears clear, however within the second, there was a number of fumbling round. After I was taking photographs of the tin plasma, I saved observing a a lot bigger, purple glowing orb surrounding it. It appeared seemingly that the plasma blast was inducing H-alpha emission from the hydrogen. However the observations left us with many unknowns: Why are the orbs that particular dimension (millimeters in diameter), how do they evolve, and, most necessary, how can we examine the glow to measure the power deposited into the gasoline?
The shock wave produced by a laser-heated tin droplet in a skinny hydrogen ambiance is analogous sufficient to a supernova blast that they’ll each be described by the identical math. The entire sequence takes lower than a millionth of a second. ASML
I examined the purple orbs utilizing a
Teledyne Princeton Instruments Pi-Max 4, an ultrafast, intensified CCD digicam that may carry out fast publicity occasions on the order of nanoseconds. I paired it with a long-distance microscope lens, to gather the glow from these purple orbs, and an Orion 2-inch extra-narrowband H-alpha bandpass filter that I bought from an astrophotography web site. The pictures I captured with this rig have been placing. Each plasma occasion was sending out a spherical shock entrance that expanded in a gradual manner.
By likelihood, months earlier, I had attended a seminar that talked about blast waves—shock waves produced by a point-source explosion. That seminar satisfied me that our observations might give me the power measurement I used to be in search of. In my hunt to grasp how blast waves evolve, I discovered that astronomers had run into the identical measurement downside when trying to find out the preliminary power launch that had produced an noticed supernova remnant. And I knew that I additionally had the right subject for the subsequent of my ongoing science talks with my grandfather.
The Taylor-von Neumann-Sedov formulation was developed within the Nineteen Forties to calculate the yield of atomic bombs, however it additionally describes the evolution of plasma shock waves in our EUV lithography system and in distant supernovas. It relates the shock wave’s radius (R) over time to the power launched (E), gasoline density (ρ), and a gas-dependent parameter (C).
To get a solution, astronomers turned to equations that have been found within the Nineteen Forties, when scientists have been in search of methods to investigate the harmful capability of newly developed
atomic weapons. One expression of these equations, known as the Taylor-von Neumann-Sedov formula, describes the radius of the shock as a operate of time. It gives a easy, direct relationship between the radius of the shock and the whole power.
In 1949, British physicist
Geoffrey Taylor used his newly derived formulation of blast waves to find out and publish the (then-classified) power yield of the primary atomic-bomb detonations. Taylor’s success, which reportedly upset the United States authorities, demonstrated the ability of his evaluation. Amazingly, the Taylor-von Neumann-Sedov formulation describes atomic-bomb shocks with radii of tons of of meters, supernova shocks that stretch throughout gentle years, and tin-plasma shocks simply millimeters broad. All of them symbolize the identical fundamental bodily state of affairs: a compact, freestanding physique releasing power towards minimal resistance, increasing quickly right into a gaseous surrounding.
Early atomic explosions, corresponding to this take a look at on the Trinity Website on 16 July 1945, impressed scientists to develop new math to calculate the quantity of power launched. U.S. Department of Energy
Making use of the Taylor-von Neumann-Sedov formulation to the H-alpha photographs we recorded within the ASML gentle supply resulted in a satisfying settlement between our calculated energies and the quantities we had roughly estimated by different means. We additionally encountered some discrepancies between principle and follow, nevertheless. In our EUV sources, we noticed that the H-alpha emission shouldn’t be at all times completely symmetric, which can point out that our laser-produced plasmas don’t fairly match the simplifying “point-source” assumption. We additionally tried various quite a lot of completely different parameters to be taught extra in regards to the blasts (a sort of experiment that’s clearly not attainable for supernovas). For example, we mapped blast-wave trajectories as a operate of ambient strain, droplet dimension, laser power, and goal form.
Our outcomes helped us to refine our fashions and to find out the easiest way to tailor the hydrogen setting in our machines to allow a clear, steady EUV supply for chip fabrication.
Advert Astra per Aspera
The connection between supernovas and laser-produced plasmas is only one instance of a protracted historical past of advances in physics and engineering that have been impressed by astronomy. For hundreds of years, researchers have designed laboratory experiments and measurement strategies to re-create what was noticed within the sky. The fashionable description of the atom can hint its roots to the invention of the prism and the spreading of the photo voltaic spectrum into its composite colours, which led to the identification of discrete power ranges in an atom and, lastly, the event of quantum mechanics. With out quantum mechanics, many trendy electronics applied sciences wouldn’t be attainable.
Barnard’s Loop [left], within the constellation Orion, is the remnant of an historical supernova. It glows in Hydrogen-alpha gentle, similar to the shock waves produced by tin-plasma explosions in ASML’s gentle supply. Daniel Brown
The unfold of concepts has gone the opposite manner as properly. As the principles of atomic physics and the absorption strains of gases have been characterised in lab experiments, astronomers used spectroscopic observations to find out the composition of the solar, to infer the life cycles of stars, and to measure the dynamics of galaxies.
I discover it fascinating that the laser-produced plasmas we use in our EUV gentle supply particularly resemble one specific number of supernova, often called Sort Ia. This sort of supernova is believed to happen when a white dwarf star pulls materials from a neighboring companion star till it reaches a crucial mass and implodes, leading to a violent self-destruction. Sort Ia supernovas explode in a extremely constant manner, making them helpful “customary candles” with predictable intrinsic luminosities: Evaluating their obvious brightness to their true, intrinsic luminosity makes it attainable to measure their distances from us precisely throughout billions of sunshine years. These supernovas are getting used to review the enlargement of the universe, they usually have led to the startling discovery that the enlargement of the cosmos is accelerating.
In our EUV sources, we likewise goal to have all of our explosions similar, in order that they function a “customary candle” for the EUV scanner. Our goals are decidedly extra earthly than cosmic in scale, however our ambitions are grand all the identical.
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